The United States civil defense program was unable to fulfill even the limited role assigned to it during the Cold War. In some cities there weren't even enough fallout shelters for the population, and there were virtually no blast shelters. In comparison, Switzerland passed a law in 1963 requiring the government to provide all civilians with protection against nuclear attack and the shelters continue to be maintained today. Furthermore, even today civilian broadcasting stations and emergency command centers remain vulnerable to EMP effects that could be expected in the event of a nuclear attack or major solar flare. In modern times emergency response is hampered by bureaucracy, federalism, and the lack of clear roles for agencies. Even during outside of defense emergencies disaster response leans heavily on local police, the National Guard, and the military and federal police. What would it have taken for the United States to have developed and maintained a strong civil defense system during and after the Cold War?